![]() By incorporating 3D printing technology with smart materials, the concept of 4D printing is proposed to realize components that can regulate their morphologies responding to external stimuli ( De Marco et al., 2018). Thus, designing and manufacturing bioinspired soft actuators are extremely challenging for traditional technologies, which desires an innovative way rather than artificially assembling elementary blocks like rigid-body actuators ( Cho et al., 2009).įour-dimensional (4D) printing, stemming from the rapid development of 3D printing, smart materials, and systematic programming routes, is an effective way of transferring biological counterparts into artificial structures ( Momeni et al., 2017). The bioinspired soft actuators usually consist of delicate and sophisticated heterogeneous structures and are constructed from materials with mechanical properties analogous to living materials ( Miriyev et al., 2017). The transferring and applying are not the direct “copy and paste” process but an innovative process, similar to heredity and variation in species evolution process ( Gregory, 2009). The abstracting demands acknowledging the associations of the structural–functional properties of plants. It is divided into “bottom-up” and “top-down” process ( Hashemi Farzaneh et al., 2016), and both of them requires the steps of abstracting, transferring, and applying. Structural designs that can self-adapt in both controlled and uncontrolled environments are urgently required.īiomimetics is a multidisciplinary discipline that examines bio-phenomenology for gaining inspiration in developing artificial systems ( Vincent et al., 2006). Similar to the environment of plants, the operating environment of artificial soft actuators is also dynamic ( Pfeifer et al., 2012). These systems sense and respond to surrounding changes without additional energy inputs, making them ideal for soft actuations. The organization of plant cell walls accounts for motion, where a soft matrix and stiff embedded cellulose fibrils drive the movement of the plant organ ( Dawson et al., 1997). A representative example of morphological computation is the “passive movements.” For example, pine cones open their scales in dry conditions and close them when hydrated. The dynamic interactions between their morphology and the environment contribute to the adaptability of the plant system, which also generates the principle of “morphological computation” ( Zambrano et al., 2014). In reaction to variability within their surroundings, they continuously adjust their morphology and physiology. After evolution for billions of years, plant organs are gifted with the ability to respond to environmental changes by regulating constituents and structures, forming the “morphological computation” in their growth and reach a final configuration before maturation ( Pfeifer and Gomez, 2009 Guo et al., 2015). Unlike animals, where macroscopic movement is provided by chemical reaction in the molecule level, the locomotion of plants is delivered by microscopic swelling of the cells ( Forterre, 2013). Nature endows many organic systems with shape-morphing features, particularly the plant kingdom ( Poppinga et al., 2020). We provide analyses of the challenges and our visions of biomimetic 4D printing, hoping to boost its application in soft robotics, smart medical devices, smart parts in aerospace, etc. This review summarizes the morphing and actuation mechanisms of plants and concludes with the recent development of 4D-printed smart materials inspired by the locomotion and structures of plant systems. A versatile motion design catalog is required to predict the morphing processes and final states of the printed parts. Four-dimensional (4D) printing is a bottom-up additive manufacturing method that builds objects with the ability to change shape/properties in a predetermined manner. These characteristics make them ideal candidates for application in self-morphing devices. In contrast, they harvest energy from the ambient environment and compute through embodied intelligence. Notably, plants do not leverage muscle and nerves to produce and regulate their motions. 2School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdomįor prey, seeding, and protection, plants exhibit ingenious adaptive motions that respond autonomously to environmental stimuli by varying cellular organization, anisotropic orientation of cellulose fibers, mechanical instability design, etc.1Key Laboratory of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, China.Luquan Ren 1 Bingqian Li 1 Kunyang Wang 1 Xueli Zhou 1 Zhengyi Song 1 Lei Ren 2* Qingping Liu 1*
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